Alex Korzybski
European Society for General Semantics
In fact, today, colloids may be regarded as important, perhaps the most important, connecting
link between the organic and inorganic world. (7)
Wolfgang Pauli
In our researches, let us follow the natural order and give a brief structural account of what we
know, empirically, about the medium in which life is found; namely, about the colloids. The
following few elementary particulars show the empirical importance of structure, and so are
fundamental in the present work.
At present, physicians are usually too innocent of psychiatry, and psychiatrists, although they
often complain about innocence of their colleagues, seldom, if ever, themselves pay any
attention to the colloidal structure of life; and their arguments about the 'body-mind' problem are
still scientifically incomplete and unconvincing, though the 'body-mind' problem has been
present with us for thousands of years. It is a very important semantic problem and has yet not
solved scientifically, although there is a simple solution if it is to be found in the colloidal
structure of life.
The reader should not ascribe any uniqueness of the 'cause-effect' character to which the
statements will follow, as they may not be true when generalized. Colloidal science is young
and little known. Science has accumulated a maze of facts, but we do not have, as yet, a general
theory of colloidal behavior. Statements, therefore, should not be unduly generalized. We shall
only indicate a few structural and relational connections important for our purpose.
When we take a piece of some material and subdivide it into smaller pieces, we cannot carry on
this process indefinitely. At some stage of this process, the bits become so small that they
cannot be seen with the most powerful microscope. At a further stage, we should reach a limit of
the subdivision that the particles can undergo without losing their chemical character. Such a
limit is called the molecule.* The smallest particle visible in the microscope is still about 1000 x
larger than the largest molecule. So we see that between the molecule and the smallest visible
particle there is a wide range of sizes.
*This statement is only approximate, because there is evidence that chemical characteristics
change as the molecule is approached.
Findlay calls these the 'twilight zone of matter'; and it was Ostwald, I believe, who called it the
'world of neglected dimensions'. This 'world of neglected dimensions' is a particular interest to
us, because in this range of subdivision or smallness we find very peculiar forms of behavior,
life included, which are called colloidal behavior.
The term 'colloid' was proposed in 1861 by Thomas Graham to describe the distinction between
the behavior of those materials which readily crystallize and diffuse through animal membranes,
and those which form amorphous or gelatinous masses, and do not diffuse readily or at all
through animal membranes. Graham called the first class 'crystaloids' and the second 'colloids',
from the Greek word for glue.
In the beginning, colloids were regarded as special substances, but it was found that this point
of view was not correct. For instance, NaCl may behave in solution as a crystaloid or as a
colloid; so we begin to speak about the colloidal state. Of late, even this term became
unsatisfactory, and often it is supplanted by the term colloidal behavior.
Materials which exhibit this special colloidal behavior are always in a very fine state of
subdivision, so that the ratio of surface exposed to volume of material is very large. A sphere
containing only ten cubic centimeters is composed of fine particles 0.00000025 cm. in diameter,
would have a total area of all surfaces of the particles nearly equal to one half an acre. (1) It is
easy to understand that under such structural conditions the surface forces become important
and play a prominent role in colloidal behavior.
Materials which exhibit this special colloidal behavior are always in a very fine state of
subdivision, so that the ratio of surface exposed to volume of material is very large. A sphere
containing only ten cubic centimeters is composed of fine particles 0.00000025 cm. in diameter,
would have a total area of all surfaces of the particles nearly equal to one half an acre. (1) It is
easy to understand that under such structural conditions the surface forces become important
and play a prominent role in colloidal behavior.
The smaller the colloidal particles, the closer we come to molecular and atomic sizes. Since we
know atoms represent electrical structures, we should not be surprised to find that, in colloids,
surface energies and electrical charges become of fundamental importance as by necessity, all
surfaces are made up of electrical charges.
The surface energies operating in finely grained and dispersed systems are large, and in their
tendency for a minimum, every 2 particles or drops tend to become one; because, while the
mass is not altered by this change, the surface of one larger particle or drop is less than the
surface of the two smaller ones - an elementary geometrical fact. Electrical charges have the
well known characteristic that like repels like and attracts the unlike. In colloids, the effect of
these factors is of a fundamental yet opposite character. The surface energies tend to unite the
particles, to coagulate, flocculate, or precipitate them. In the meanwhile, the electrical charges
tend to preserve the state of suspension by repelling the particles from each other. On the
predominance or intensity of one or other of these factors, the instability or the stability of a
suspension depends.
In general, if time limits are not taken into consideration, colloids are unstable complexes, in
which continuous transformation takes place, which is induced by heat, electric fields, electronic
discharges, and other forms of energy. These transformations result in a great variation of the
characteristics of the system. The dispersed phase alters its characteristics and the system
begins to coagulate, reaching a stable state when the coagulation is complete. This process of
transformation with the characteristics of the system which define the colloid, and which ends in
coagulation, is called the 'ageing' of the colloid. With the coagulation complete, the system
loses its colloidal behavior, it is 'dead'. Both of these terms apply to inorganic as well as to
organic systems.
Some of the coagulating processes are partial and reversible, and take the form of change in
viscosity; some are not. Some are slow; some extremely rapid, particularly when produced by
external agencies which alter the colloidal equilibrium.
From what has been said already, it is obvious that colloids, particularly in organisms, are
extremely sensitive and complex structures with enormous possibilities as to degree of stability,
reversibility, and allow wide range and variation of behavior. When we speak of Chemistry, we
are concerned with a science that deals with certain materials which preserve or alter certain of
their characteristics.
In Physics we go beyond the obvious characteristics and try to discover the structure
underlying these characteristics. Modern researchers show clearly that atoms have a very
complex structure, and show that the macroscopic characteristics are directly connected with
sub microscopic structure. If we can alter this structure, we usually can alter also the chemical
or other characteristics. As the processes in colloids are largely structural and physical,
anything which tends to have a structural effect usually also disturbs the colloidal equilibrium,
and then different macroscopic effects appear. As these changes occur as a series of
interrelated events, the best way to consider colloidal behavior as a physio-electrochemical
occurrence, but once the word physical enters, structural implications are involved. This
explains, also, why all known forms of radiant energy, being structures, can affect or alter
colloidal structures, and so have marked effect on colloids.
As all life is found in the colloidal form and has many characteristics found also in inorganic
colloids, it appears that colloids supply us with the most important known link between the
inorganic and the organic. This fact also suggests entirely new fields for the study of the living
cells and of the optimum conditions for the development, sanity included.
Many writers are not agreed as to the use of the terms film, membrane and the like. Empirically
discovered structure shows clearly, however, that we deal with surfaces and surface energy,
and that a surface tension film behaves as a membrane. In the present work, we accept the
obvious fact that organized systems are film-partitioned systems.
One of the most baffling problems has been the peculiar periodicity or rhythmicity could not be
explained by purely physical nor purely chemical means, but that it is satisfactorily explained
when treated as a physico-electro-chemical structural occurrence. The famous experiments of
Lillie, who used an iron wire immersed in nitric acid and reproduced experimentally a beautiful
periodicity resembling closely some of the activities of protoplasm in the nervous system, show
conclusively that both the living and the non-living systems depend for their rhythmic behavior
on the chemically alterable film, which divides the electrically conducting phases. In the iron
wire and nitric acid experiment, the metal and the acid represent the two phases, and between
the two there is found a thin film of oxide in protoplasmic structures such as a nerve fibre, the
internal protoplasm and the surrounding medium are the two phases, separated by surface film
of modified plasma membrane. In both systems, the electromotive characteristics of the
surfaces are determined by the character of the film. (2)
That living organisms are film-bounded and partitioned systems accounts also for irritability. It
appears that irritability manifests itself as sensitiveness to electrical currents. These currents
seem to depend on polarizability or resistance to passage of ions, owing to the presence of
semi-permeable boundary films or surfaces in closing or partitioning the system. It is obvious
that we are here dealing with complex structures which are intimately connected with the
characteristics of life. Living protoplasm is electrically sensitive only as long as its structure is
intact. With death, semipermeability and polarizability are lost, together with electrical sensitivity.
One of the baffling peculiarities of organisms is the rapidity with which the chemical and
metabolical processes spread. Indeed, it is impossible to explain this by the transportation of
material. All evidence shows that electrical, and perhaps other energy factors, play an important
role; and that this activity again depends on the presence of surfaces of protoplasmic structures
with electrode like characteristics that form circuits.
The great importance of the electrical charges of the colloidal particles arises out of the fact that
they prevent particles from coalescing; and when these charges are neutralized, the particles
tend to form larger aggregates and settle out of the solution. Because of these charges, when
an electric current is sent through a colloidal solution, the differently charged particles wander to
one or the other electrode. This process is called cataphoresis.
There is an important difference in behavior in inorganic and organic colloids under the
influence of electrical currents. And this is due to the difference in structure. In inorganic
colloids, an electrical current does not coagulate the whole, but only that portion of it in the
immediate vicinity of the electrodes. Not so in living protoplasm. Even a weak current usually
coagulates the entire protoplasm, because the intracellular films probably play the role of
electrodes and so the entire protoplasm structurally represents the immediate vicinity of the
electrodes. Similarly, structure also accounts for the extremely rapid spread of some effects on
the whole of the organism.
Electrical phenomena in living tissue are mainly of two more or less distinct characters. The first
include electromotive energy which produces electrical currents in nerve tissue, the membrane
potentials. The second are called, by Freundlich, electrokinetic and include cataphoresis,
agglutination. There is much evidence that the mechanical work of the muscles, the secretory
action of the glands, and the electrical work of the nerve cells are closely connected with the
colloidal structure of these tissues. This would explain by why factor (semantic reactions
included) capable of altering the colloidal structure of the living protoplasm, must have a marked
effect on the behavior and welfare of the organism.
Experiments show that there are four main factors which are able to disturb the colloidal
equilibrium: (1) Physical, as for instance, x-rays, radium, light, ultraviolet rays, cathode rays (2)
Mechanical, such as friction, puncture; (3) Chemical, such as tar, paraffin, arsenic, and finally, (4)
Biological, such as microbes, parasites, spermatozoa. In man, another (5) potent factor, namely
the Semantic reactions, enters, but about this factor I shall speak later.
For our purpose, the effects produced by the physical factors, because, obviously, structural are
of main interest, and we shall, therefore, summarize some of the structural results. Electrical
currents of different strength and duration, as well as acids of different concentration, or
addition of metallic salts, which produce marked acidity, usually coagulate the protoplasm.
These effects being structurally interrelated. Slow coagulation involves changes in viscosity, all
of which, under certain conditions, may be reversible. (3) When cells are active, their fluidity
often changes in a sharp and rapid manner. (4)
Fat solvents are called surface active materials. When diluted, they decrease protoplasmic
viscosity; but more concentrated solutions produce increased viscosity or coagulation. (5) The
anaesthetists, which always are fat solvents and surface-active materials, are very instructive in
action for our purpose, as they effect very diversified types of protoplasm similarly, this similarity
of action being due to the similarity of colloidal structure.
Thus, either of equal concentration will make a man unconscious, will prevent the movement of
a fish, and the wiggling of a worm, or stop the activity of a plant cell without permanently injuring
the cells. (6) In fact, the action of all drugs is based on their effect upon the colloidal equilibrium,
without which action a drug would not be effective. It is well known that various acids or alakalis
always change the electrical resistance of the protoplasm. (7)
The working of the organism involves a structural and very important vicious circle, which
makes the character of colloidal changes NON-ADDITIVE. If for instance, the heart, for any
reason, slows down the circulation, this produces an accumulation of carbonic acid in the
blood, which again increases the viscosity of the blood, and so throws more work on the already
weakened heart. (8) Under such structural conditions, the results may accumulate very rapidly,
even at a rate which can be expressed as an exponential function of a higher degree.
Different regions of the organism have different charges; but in the main, an injured or excited or
cooler part is electronegative (which is connected with acid formation), and the electropositive
particles rush to those parts and supply the material for whatever physiological need there may
be. (9)
The effects of different forms of radiant energy on colloids and protoplasm are being extensively
studied, and the results are very startling. The different forms of radiant energy differ in
wavelength, frequency, that is to say, generally in structure, and as such may produce structural
effects on colloids and organisms, which effects may appear on the gross macroscopic level in
many different forms.
Electric currents, for instance, retard reversibility the growth of roots, may activate some eggs
into larval stages without fertilization, which makes it understandable why, in some cases, a
mere puncturing of the egg may disturb the equilibrium and produce the effects of fertilization.
(10)
The X-, or Rontgen, rays, have been shown to accelerate 150x the process of mutation. Muller,
in his experiments with several thousand cultures of the fruit fly, has established the above ratio
of induced mutations, which become hereditary. (11) 'Cosmic rays' in the form of radiation from
the earth in tunnels, for instance, show similar results except that mutation shows only twice as
often as usual under laboratory conditions.
Under the influence of x-rays, mice change their color of hair; gray mice become white, and
white ones darker. Sometimes further additional bodily changes appear; as, for instance, one or
no kidneys, abnormal eyes or legs, occur more often than under ordinary conditions. Some
animals lose their power of reproduction although the body is not obviously changed. Plants
respond also to the x-ray treatment. They grow faster, flower more, and produce new forms
more readily. In humans, the effect of x-ray irradiation has often proven disastrous to the health
of experimenters. There are even data that irradiation of pregnant mothers may result in
deformation of the head and limbs of the unborn child, and in 1/3 of the cases, feeble
mindedness of the children has resulted. (12)
Ultraviolet rays also show a marked effect. In some instances, they slow down or stop the
streaming of protoplasm, because of increased viscosity or coagulation; plants grow more
slowly or rapidly, certain valuable ingredients in plants are increased; certain animals, as, for
instance, small crustacea, or bacteria, are killed; eggs of Nereis (a kind of sea worm) which
usually have 28 chromosomes) after irradiation have 70; certain bone malformations in children
are cured; the toxin in the blood serum of pernicious anemia patients are destroyed. (13) In this
respect, we should notice again that ultraviolet irradiation produces curative effects like those of
cod liver oil, which shows that the effect of both factors is ultimately colloidal and structural.
Extensive experimentation with cathode rays is very recent, but already we have a most
astonishing array of structural facts. Moist air is converted into nitric acid, synthetic rubber is
produced rapidly, the milk from rubber trees is made solid and insoluble without the use of
sulphur, liquid forms of Bakelite are solidified without heating, linseed oil becomes dry to the
touch in 3 hours and hard in 6 hours, certain materials like cholesterol, yeast, starch, cottonseed
oil, after exposure for 30 seconds, heal rickets and similar unexpected results. What are usually
called 'Vitamins' do not only represent 'special substances', but become structurally active
factors; and this is why ultraviolet rays may produce results like those of some substance. It
seems that in vitamins, the surface activities are important; the parallelism shown by von Hahn,
between the surface activities, different materials and the Funk Table of Vitamin Content is quite
suggestive. Some data seem to show that in some instances, surface active materials such as
coffee or alcohol, produce beneficial surface activities similar to the vitamin. (14).
It's curious that in all illnesses, rather physical or mental, the systems are very few and
fundamentally of a standard type. In physical illness, we find the following common
characteristics: fever, chills, headaches, convulsions, vomiting, diarrhea; in mental ills,
identifications, illusions, delusions, and hallucinations - in general - the reversed pathological
order - are found. It is not difficult to understand the reason. Because of the general colloidal
background of life, different disturbances of colloidal equilibrium should produce similar
symptoms. In fact, many of these symptoms have been reproduced experimentally by injecting
inert precipitates incapable of chemical reaction, which have induced, artificially, colloidal
disturbances.
Thus, if the serum from an epileptic patient is injected into a guinea pig, it results in an attack of
convulsions, often ending in death. But, if the guinea pig is previously made immune b an
injection of some colloid which customs the nerve ends to the colloidal flocculation, then for a
few hours following we can, with impunity, introduce into the circulation otherwise fatal doses of
epileptic serum. Epileptic serum can also be made immune by filtration, or by strong
centrifugation, or by long standing, which frees it from colloidal precipitates. (15)
Death through blood transfusion, or the injection of any colloids, into the circulation, also has, in
the main, similar symptoms, regardless of the chemical character of the colloid, indicating once
more the importance and fundamental character of structure. (16)
That illnesses are somehow connected with colloidal disturbances (note the wording of this
statement) becomes quite obvious when we consider catarrhal diseases, inflammations,
swellings, tumors, cancer, blood thrombi, which involve colloidal injuries resulting in extreme
cases , in complete coagulation or fluidification, the variation between (gel) and (sol) appearing
in a most diversified manner. (17) Other illnesses are connected with precipitation or deposits
of various minerals. Gout, for instance, results from a morbid deposit of uric acid, and different
concretions such as the 'stones', are very often found in different fluids of the organism. We
have, thus, concretions in the intestines, the bile, the urine, the pancreas, the salivary glands;
lime deposits in old softened tissues, 'rice bodies' in the joints, 'brain sand'. (18)
In bacterial diseases, the microorganisms rapidly produce acids and bases which tend to
destroy the colloidal equilibrium. Lately it has been found that even tuberculosis is more than a
mere chapter in bacteriology.
All the main tubercular symptoms can be reproduced experimentally by means of colloidal
disturbances without the intervention of a single bacteria. (19) This would explain also, why, in
some instances, psychotherapy is effective in diseases with tubercular symptoms. (20)
By structural necessity, every expression of cellular activity involves some sort of colloidal
behavior; and any factor disturbing the colloidal structure must be disturbing to the welfare of
the organism vice versa, a factor which is beneficial to the organism must reach and affect the
colloids.
After this brief account of the structural peculiarities of the domain in which life is found, we can
understand the baffling 'body-mind' problem. We do not yet know as many details as we could
wish, but these will accumulate the moment a general solution is clearly formulated. It is a well
established experimental fact that all nervous and mental activities are connected with or
actually generate electrical currents which of late are scrupulously steadied by the aid of an
instrument called the psychogalvanometer. (21)
It is not suggested that electrical currents are the only ones which are involved. There may be
many forms of radiant energy produced or effective, which we have not yet the instruments to
record. Experiments suggest such a possibility. Thus, for instance, the apex of a certainly
rapidly growing vegetable or animal tissue emits some sort of invisible radiation which
stimulates the growth of living tissue with which it is not in contact. The tip of a turnip or onion
root, if placed at right angles with another root, at a distance of a quarter of an inch, so
stimulates the growth of the latter, that the increase in the number of cells on its side nearest the
point of stimulation is as high as 70%, these ratios accelerate the growth of some bacteria.
Other examples could be given. (22).
A classical example of the effect left on protoplasm by energetic factors is given by Bovie. (23)
As yet, we have not assumed that the protoplasm of plants also shows lasting structural and
functional results of stimulation, some sort of learning or habit formation characteristics. But
such is the case; and further experimentation along these lines will help greatly to understand
the mechanism of mental processes in ourselves.
If we take the seed of a plant, for instance, of a squash, and keep it in a moist tropism chamber in
the dark, it will grow a root. When the root is about 1" long, we begin our experiment. Originally,
under the influence of gravitation, the root rows vertically downwards. If we rotate the tropism
chamber 90 degrees so that the root is horizontal, the root will soon bend downwards under the
influence of positive geotropism comparatively ending does not occur at once. There is a latent
period - in the case of the squash seed, about 10 minutes - after which pause the root is bent
downwards. When we have determined this latent period for a given seedling, we then rotate the
chamber counterclockwise 90 degrees, each within the time limit before the bending would
occur. We repeat such procedure several times. When we set the root again in its vertical
downward position, we notice that the root, without any more changes of position, will wag
backwards and forward with the period as used in the experiment. This unexpected behavior
will last for several days. It shows that the alternating stimulus of gravitation, as applied to the
root, has produced some structural changes in the protoplasm which persists for a
comparatively long period after the stimulus has ceased to act. It becomes obvious that
teachability and the structural tendency for forming engrams is a general characteristic of
protoplasm.
All the examples given above show clearly that structure in general and of colloids in particular,
gives us a satisfactory basis for the understanding of the equivalence between occurrences
which belonged formerly to chemistry, and those classified as physical, and ultimately between
these and those we call mental. Structure, and structure alone, gives not only the unique
content of what we call knowledge, but also the bridge between the different classes of
occurrences, a fact which as yet has not been fully understood.
To sum up: it is known that colloidal behavior is exhibited by materials of very fine subdivision,
the world of neglected dimensions, which involves surface activities and electrical characters of
manifold and complex structure, and therefore the flexibility of gross macroscopic
characteristics. It is well known that all life processes, feelings, emotions, thought, semantic
reactions, and so forth, involve at least electrical currents. As electric currents and other forms
of energy are able to affect the colloidal structure on which our physical characteristics depend,
obviously feelings, emotions, thought; in general, semntic reactions. which are connected with
manifestations of energy, will also have some effect on our bodies, and vice versa. Colloidal
structure supplies us with an extremely flexible mechanism with endless possibilities.
When we analyze the known empirical facts from a structural point of view, we find not only the
equivalence which was mentioned before, but we must, also, legitimately consider the so-called
mental, emotional and other semantic and nervous occurrences in connection with
manifestations of energy which have a powerful influence on the colloidal behavior, and so
ultimately on the behavior of our organisms as a whole. Under such environmental conditions,
we must take into account all energies which have been discovered, semantic reactions not
excluded, as all such energies have structural effect. As language is one of the expressions of
one of these energies, we ought to find it quite natural that the structure of language finds its
reflection in the structure of the environmental conditions which are dependent on it.
Until lately, the disregard of colloidal science and of structure in general has greatly retarded
advance in biology, psychiatry, and other sciences. Biology, for instance, has mostly studied
life where none existed; namely, in death. If we study corpses, we study death, not life, and life
is a function of living cells. The living cell is semi-fluid, and all the forces which act in colloidal
solutions and constitute colloidal behavior are acting because they can act, while a dead cell is
coagulated and so a different set of energies is operating there. (24)
Should we wonder that life, being a form of colloidal behavior on microscopic and
sub-microscopic levels, conditioned by little colloidal wholes, and structures separated from
their environment by surfaces preserves a similar character on macroscopic levels? We should,
instead, be surprised if this did not turn out to be the case.
Science & Sanity
by ALFRED KORZYBSKI, Author of Manhood of Humanity
European Society for General Semantics
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